1960, but beginning in 2017 their numbers have exploded in rivers in northern Norway, with considerable numbers also recorded in rivers in southern Norway and other countries bordering the North Atlantic. As such, we feel this work is unique and makes a significant contribution to the field.Invasive pink salmon ( Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) has been present in variable, but low, numbers in Norwegian waters since c. In addition, a new feature was indentified in the LL, which has not been discussed before. Results from nanoindentation showed that the LL of tarpon scales is the hardest, followed by the carp and the arapaima and the differences in hardness are related to the apatite structure, possibly induced by the growth rate and environment of each fish. In addition, the composition of the LL is also unique among the three fish. Results show that there are significant differences in the surface morphology of the LL from posterior and anterior regions in the scales, and between the three species. Specifically, the structure, composition and mechanical behavior of the LL were explored for three different fish, including the arapaima (Arapaima gigas), the tarpon (Megalops atlanticus) and the carp (Cyprinus carpio). The present study addresses the highly mineralized external portion known as the Limiting Layer (LL). The majority of investigations have focused on the more highly organic layer known as the elasmodine. The natural armor of fish, turtles and other animals, has become a topic of substantial scientific interest. The calcium to phosphorus ratio and the mineral to collagen ratios of the LL are not equivalent among the three fish. Results show that there are significant differences in the surface morphology of the LL from posterior and anterior regions in the scales, and between the three fish species. Features of the LL were evaluated with respect to anatomical position to distinguish site-specific functional differences. The scales of these three fish have received the most attention within the materials community. In this investigation the structure, composition and mechanical behavior of the LL were explored for three different fish, including the arapaima ( Arapaima gigas), the tarpon ( Megalops atlanticus) and the carp ( Cyprinus carpio). This coating serves as the first barrier to external threats and plays an important role in resisting puncture. Most efforts in this area have focused on the composite structure of the predominately organic elasmodine, and limited work addresses the highly mineralized external portion known as the Limiting Layer (LL). Fish scales serve as a flexible natural armor that have received increasing attention across the materials community.
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